1. HEALTH
2. REFUGEES and SLAVERY
3. GOVERNANCE AND SECURITY
4. POVERTY
5. WOMEN IN AFRICA
6. ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

Here are aspects of African culture to explore:

1. ART
2. MUSIC
3. LITERATURE

HEALTH
Malaria
Malaria is a scourge that causes more than a fifth of all childhood deaths in Africa every year. That comes to a horrifying 2, 476 children every day who perish from a preventable disease! Malaria not only causes high fevers but also influences other health problems in children, resulting in underdevelopment, epilepsy and anemia. Children miss school for long periods and some become too weak to work effectively.

Ironically, malaria is largely avoidable. An effort is underway to develop a vaccine to immunize Africans, driven by generous funding from the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. One simple step would be to make mosquito netting available on a massive scale. Nets are the most effective way of protecting families on a daily basis.

Vaccinations: A Success Story in the Making 

Vaccinations have a critical part in securing good health for all people. An article by Marco Vischer in Ode, issue 14, has demonstrated that vaccines can be available to people living in remote villages. Visscher reports that Judja-Sato in 2000 set up VillageReach, a not-for-profit organization to assist with the distribution of vaccines in Mozambique. VillageReach won the World Bank’s Development Marketplace competition, and the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation also have donated money to it. VillageReach has a fleet of trucks and mopeds that deliver the precious immunization to local health centers. Judja-Sato has also set up VidaGas to sell propane to the health ministry to power equipment such as sterilizers and refrigerators. Profits from VidaGas are re-invested into VillageReach’s health programs.

To fight and control malaria in African nations, about $3 billion a year is needed. Such funding would support the mass distribution of medicines and insecticide-treated bed nets. Ten dollars annually from each American would cover the cost of these steps and save the lives of nearly a million children a year. For more information, explore:

The Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria, administered by the World Health Organization: www.who.int/en/

Malaria Foundation International at www.malaria.org

Medecins sans Frontieres at: www.doctorswithoutborders.org

Roll Back Malaria - informative publications at: www.rbm.who.int

HIV/AIDS
AIDS in Africa is of a magnitude greater than in any other region of the globe.
The extent of the disease has brought tragedy and has crippled development efforts, especially in southern and eastern Africa – the hardest hit regions. In some areas, the entire middle-age population has nearly been wiped out; this means a critical lost of trained educators and engineers, of farmers and physicians, of parents and partners. The elderly are forced to take care of the young and vice versa. A burgeoning orphan population exceeds ten million children. The disarray within societies is devastating as millions of households deal with the emotional and financial loss of workers.

Ironically, in rich countries, those afflicted with HIV/AIDS often have access to antiretroviral medicines in three-drug combinations, so the infected now have hope. According to Jeffrey Sacks, the cost to pharmaceuticals to produce the antiretroviral regimen is about $500 per year, per person. With a significant infusion of donor aid – a few billion dollars -, HIV/AIDS could be addressed with some hope.

One encouraging step is that President Bush has an emergency program to fight AIDS, by distributing antiretroviral medicine to more than 200,000 Africans, with a goal of reaching two million by 2008. To learn more, explore: www.whitehouse.gov/infocus/hivaids

The Academy for Educational Development at: www.aed.org/sara/

Action Aid at: www.actionaidusa.org

African Council of AIDS Service Organizations at: www.enda.sn/africaso.org

African Journal of AIDS Research at: www.ajol.info

AIDS Alliance has a number of helpful resources that can be downloaded free, at: www.aidsalliance.org

Presentation by Professor Tom Rubino on HIV/AIDS

TUBERCULOSIS

Other diseases remain prevalent in Africa - diseases that have been contained for some time in the West. One of the worst is tuberculosis. The Record newspaper reported, on August 30th, 2005, that one individual succumbs to the disease every minute. Over the course of a year, an incredible 500,000 people are victims of a curable disease.

Tuberculosis thrives among the extremely poor and among those infected by HIV/AIDS, due to their weakened immune systems. African health ministers have declared a tuberculosis emergency for the continent and have asked for help in subduing this disease.

The World Health Organization offers a treatment - a six-month regimen of medication that costs only $15. In addition, the WHO has several new vaccines that are being tested on humans. Funding must increase to $2 billion to reach the afflicted in Africa. While the struggle against HIV/AIDS has captured the world's attention, tuberculosis must now be ignored.

To learn more, check out:

The Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis, and Malaria of the World Health Organization at: www.who.int/en/

Stop Tuberculosis at www.stoptb.org

South Africa Health at www.sahealthinfo.org

LEPROSY

Commonly called "Hanson's disease," leprosy is a chronic, infectious disease that occurs in tropical regions, caused by a bacillus, mycobacterium leprae. Despite common belief, not all leprosy is contagious and some forms spontaneously remit. Other strands are contagious and malignant causing progressive anesthesia of extremities, ulcers, gangrene and physical mutilation.

A variety of organization exist to treat leprosy in Africa and around the world. For more information, check out:

The Leprosy Mission International at www.tlmaro.org

The World Health Organization at www.afro.who.int

VVF (vesicovaginal fistula)

A continuing health care problem in sub-Saharan Africa is VVF, a hole between the vagina and bladder caused by a difficult labor. VVF is especially experienced by adolescent women, whose bodies are unable to handle the rigors of childbirth. The fistula leaves women incontinent and with a foul odor. The birth injury scarring may render a woman barren or unable to have sex or do manual labor.    

UNICEF reports that in sub-Saharan Africa, 1 in 13 women die in childbirth, a rate much higher than in any industrialized nation. Every year, between 50,000 and 100,000 women experience VVF.

Fistulas can be repaired in a majority of cases, but many women in Africa have no access to the surgery or well-equipped, staffed hospitals. In addition, cultural traditions of marrying off girls at an early age exist in many areas, increasing the incidence of fistula.

To learn more, check out:

African Medical and Research Foundation at: www.amref.org

Mercy Ships at: www.mercyships.org

The United Nations Population Fund at: www.unfpa.org

The Worldwide Fistula Fund at: www.wfmic.org  

Trachoma 

Trachoma is an infection that causes blindness, which is spread by flies. Breeding in human feces, the flies carry microorganisms. They land on children’s eyes, which are seeping discharge. The flies cause infections that inflame and thicken the upper eyelids. The inflamed eyelids turn inward and accumulate scar tissue. Eyelashes then scratch the cornea, which leads to blindness. 

Spreading from person to person, and often to babies, trachoma is a particular scourge of women and children. Moreover, blindness leads to a life of destitution and poverty.  

Trachoma can be cured by Zithromax, the antibiotic manufactured by Pfizer. Writing in The New York Times, in her article “Preventable Disease Blinds Poor in Third World,” (March 31, 2006), Cecil W. Dugger indicates that by 2008, the drug manufacturer Pfizer will have donated 145 million doses for trachoma control. The drug is being administered by the International Trachoma Initiative, but so far is only available in 11 of the 55 countries where the disease strikes. The World Health Organization is fostering a strategy called SAFE (an acronym for Surgery, Antibiotics, Face washing, and Environmental Changes), as a way to reduce the frequency of trachoma.

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REFUGEES and SLAVERY

Refugees
At the present time, the African regions most afflicted with refugees are Sudan, Chad, and Niger. For people who live in farming villages, existence is very fragile. War and political turmoil cause people to flee their land, putting them into a life-threatening situation. Civil wars destroy hundreds of farming villages and displace tens of thousands of people. Emergency camps often form like the one in Darfur, a region which can barely sustain life in the best of times.

When poor countries are torn by civil strife, harvests are ruined, planning cannot occur, and crops cannot be nurtured. Livestock is stolen or slaughtered by soldiers. As we have seen with the displacement of people in the United States due to Hurricane Katrina, people are easily put at risk when they lack clean water, food, and shelter. People perish from tuberculosis and diarrhea, since their immune systems are weak to begin with from malnutrition. Often refugees are in remote areas, barely accessible to relief organizations.

The Children Soldiers of Uganda 

One of the worst human rights violations in recent history has been occurring in Uganda. Members of the Lord’s Resistance Army (LRA), led by Joseph Kony, have been entering villages, shooting and mutilating innocent people, and forcing children to become members of the LRA. Since 1986, the LRA has abducted tens of thousands of children and have forced a million and a half people to flee from their homes. Adult soldiers of the LRA force the children to carry supplies; other children are turned into soldiers under the threat of death. Many of these children soldiers must hack to death or shoot their friends or relatives. The adult soldiers were once children who went through this process and have become bloodthirsty killers without conscience. While many children are beaten, girls often become sexual slaves and are routinely raped by the soldiers.  

The LRA claims that it is fighting for the independence of the Acholi region of Uganda.

The International Criminal Court has issued warrants for the arrest of Joseph Kony and his top commanders. The administration of President Bush has placed the LRA on tier two of its Terrorist Exclusion List. This means that the LRA is not considered a threat to the United States. The only way the government will act is if people contact their representatives in Congress and call for it. The following organizations are working with the refugees in Uganda:

Save the Children: www.savethechildren.org; Oxfam: www.oxfam.org.uk; Far Reaching Ministries: www.farreachingministries.org; World Vision: www.worldvision.org or www.seekjustice.org. United States congress representatives can be reached at: www.house.gov/writerep

UNICEF special representative Kieth McKenzie, speaking of Darfur, said, “The food pipeline is in a terrible situation.” Without adequate food and water, simply to survive is a challenge. For more information, check out:

The International Crisis Group at www.crisisgroup.org.

InterAction (U.S.-based charities): www.interaction.org

The International Committee of the Red Cross: www.icrc.org

The World Food Program: www.wfp.org

The International Rescue Committee at www.theirc.org

Care at: www.care.org

Slavery
The United Nations Declaration of Human Rights condemned slavery worldwide in 1948, stating, “No one shall be held in slavery or servitude; slavery and the slave trade shall be prohibited in all their forms” (Article 4). However, forms of slavery continue to exist around the world. Slaves working in cotton fields may be a thing of the past, but forms of humiliation and bondage continue to exist.

In Sudan, a racial-based slave trade used armed militia forces to raid villages for slaves. In Mauritania, 800 years of slave raids continue to this day perpetuating a system of chattel (or property) slavery, with Arab-Berber masters holding nearly a million black Africans as inheritable property. In Ghana, families repent for sins by giving daughters as sex slaves to fetish priests. In the Ivory Coast, child slaves are forced to work on cocoa plantations.

Slavery is often a condition in which the rights of ownership over a person are exercised. Some people are forced to work off the debt of their family for unlimited periods of time. Others are bound to service and not free to change their status. Some of the worst forms include child labor, servile marriage, ritual slavery, sexual slavery, and laborers exploited under slavery-like conditions For more information, visit:

I Abolish at: http://www.iAbolish.com

The American Anti-Slavery Group at: www.antislavery.org

Human Rights Watch at: www.hrw.org

Global Rights at: www.globalrights.org

Francis Bok: A Slave from Sudan
Francis Bok is a young native of Southern Sudan. At the age of seven, he was captured and enslaved during an Arab militia raid on his village of Nymlal on May 15, 1986. Mr. Bok saw adults and children brutalized and killed all around him. He was strapped to a donkey and taken north to Kirio. For ten years, Bok lived as the family slave to Giema Abdullah, was forced to sleep with cattle, endured daily beatings, and fed rotten food. Called “abeed” (black slave), Bok was given an Arabic name and forced to perform Islamic prayers.

In December of 1996, Bok escaped and an Arab truck driver helped him to reach Khartoum. There he was arrested and jailed for seven months. After his release, he escaped to Cairo, where he met United Nations officials who resettled him in North Dakota. He is now living in Boston and is an associate of the American Anti-Slavery Group. He has spoken in Washington before Senators and Congresspersons, eventually meeting then Secretary of State Madeline Albright and later, President Bush. He has spoken to tens of thousands at colleges, faith communities, and grassroots organizations throughout the United States. His autobiography, Escape from Slavery, has been published.
 

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GOVERNANCE AND SECURITY
Description
One of the most common accusations made about African countries is that of poor governance. Many Africans themselves believe that the impoverishment of Africa is due to corruption – kleptocracy – the impulse of those in power to steal and to use a nation’s resources for their own gain. Many African countries have been maimed by unchecked violence and crime, graft by public officials, and nepotism.

Good governance raises the possibility of individual wealth. A society governed by the rule of equitable law and freedom of the press enhances the checks and balances needed to ensure a just civil society. However, part of Africa’s governance problems is historically due to the buying of influence by Western nations involved in global political struggles. Certainly, good governance is essential, but it must also be supported by equitable international trade policies, a commitment to education, entrepreneurial opportunities, decent health care, and viable economic institutions. Historical problems in governance should not be a reason to give up on the potential of African states. Many excellent sites provide information on this subject. Check out:

The International Environmental Law Research Center at www.ielrc.org

The UNECA Governance Forum at www.africaction.org/docs97/eca9707.htm-25k

Presentation: "South African Update" by Professor Dave Kramer

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POVERTY
Description
Throughout Africa, many people live on less than $1 a day, suffering from hunger and unbalanced diets. Millions go to bed hungry having had minimally nutritious food. The fragility of existence is such that when drought or political turmoil occurs, people flee for their lives, often to areas that lack food and water.

Poverty can be addressed by a number of means. One is the application of farming techniques that increase the potential harvest of grains. Another is the development of market access so that farmers can sell surplus goods and accumulate wealth. The establishment of community-based food distribution centers in remote areas can also benefit people as well as provide employment. Such a local program has been successful in Sudan, where mothers receive not only food but also health education and seeds.

Each year around the world, millions of people die due to living under the horrific conditions of extreme poverty. According to studies done by the World Bank, 1.1 billion people live in extreme poverty. Nearly half of Africa’s population qualifies. The deprivations of poverty come from drought, famine, disease, and lives being lived below the bottom rung of development. Time magazine in its March 14th, 2005 issue, devoted to an analysis of poverty, claimed that over 8 million people will die this year “because they are too poor to stay alive.”

While the United States is spending nearly $500 billion on its military, only $16 billion is going to be spend helping the poorest of the poor. This represents less than .2% of the national income. Many organizations are encouraging the United States to increase the amount it donates to 1% of the national budget. Such a commitment would not only save lives but would also lessen global instability.

The sources of extreme poverty are complex, requiring multidimensional solutions. In many regions of Africa, people lack the basic infrastructure needed to survive threats, including local clinics, passable roads, clean water, healthy sanitation systems, electricity, and other basic necessities of life. When I was in India in 1982, only half of the 250,000 rural villages had electricity or plumbing. When I was in Liberia in 1987, there was not one pathologist in the entire country. The JFKMedical Center was so poorly equipped, it was locally called, “Just for killing Monrovian citizens.”

Jeffrey D. Sacks has written in The End of Poverty, that many of the poor cannot even take the first step to get on the bottom rung of the development ladder. The extreme poor are trapped in cycles of chronic hunger, lacking health care, safe drinking water, and even proper shelter. Children are forced to search for food rather than attend school, if one exists. Others live in geographically isolated regions, far from the mainstreams of economic growth.

Distribution of Aid:

The administrative and transportation costs presently connected with foreign aid cut into the amount of actual money spend on help. The United States Agency for International Development provided the following regarding the total 2006 USAID food Aid Budget of 1.6 billion:

     5%   Administrative costs $81 million

     9%   Overland transportation from port to final destination

    21%   Ocean shipping from U.S. $341 million

    26%   Transportation and storage in destination country $410 million

    40%   Food cost $654 million

Five major development interventions by rich countries would go a long way to reducing Africa’s extreme poverty: Improving Agriculture, Ensuring Access to Health Services, Expanding Elementary Education, Creating Stable Electricity, and Providing Purified Water and Sanitary Waste Disposal. Today, we have the technology to radically improve the lives of those trapped in extreme poverty. We can use our science, not merely to improve our own leisure activities or enhance our lives, but to save those on the brink of perishing. Individual citizens, working with private and public organizations, can make a commitment to break the cycles of despair that characterize much of Africa. An organization committed to reducing poverty are:

The Carter Center at: www.cartercenter.org

The United Nations Millennium Campaign at: www.millenniumcampaign.org

Wateraid offers information on sanitation and clean water, at: www.wateraid.org

Whiteband is a global site against poverty: www.whiteband.org

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WOMEN IN AFRICA
Description
The women of Africa make a huge contribution not only to the maintenance of their households, but also to the production of food through farming, thus affecting their national economies. Over the past decades, more women’s associations have been formed creating political opportunities to assert leadership. By enhancing their own positions, African women are strengthening Africa’s development.

Unfortunately, women in African confront huge obstacles. The first is training to develop their personal skills. The second is opportunities to expand their roles in society. In addition, the social conditions under which African women live are generally deplorable and deteriorating due to political instability and disease. A large number of young women risk HIV/AIDS infection as circumstances have pushed them into prostitution or dangerous sexual relations.

One of the means of opportunity is education. Girls need to be enabled to attend all levels of schooling in equal proportion to boys. In many parts of Africa, girls are expected to stay home and help their mothers with childcare and farming to the exclusion of their education. Illiterate and uneducated, their prospects are slim as they replicate the life patterns of their mothers. Education and vocational training are essential to building self-esteem and providing women with opportunities for employment.

A second means of opportunity is to increase women’s legal rites of farmable land, a difficult challenge since land titles traditionally have been registered to men. Also, as men have left for work opportunities, women’s labor and burdens have increased.
Child-rearing is exclusively a woman’s duty in Africa.

A third area to improve opportunities for women is sanitation and health. Rural women face a lack of potable water and many still walk miles daily to bring clean water to their villages. Water-borne and environmental parasites make women vulnerable to diseases.
Maternal and infant mortality remains high.

In some areas of Africa, traditional customs victimize women. Female genital mutilation jeopardizes the lives of over 2 million girls every year in Sudan, Somalia, Djibouti, Ethiopia, and Sierra Leone. Ironically, it is the elder women who maintain this custom.

An area of opportunity is for women to become leaders in their communities. With the increase of political and decision-making power, women can gain a greater control over the quality of their own lives instead of being the victims of repressive forces.

One of the most important innovations is micro-enterprise development (MED), in which small loans are given to individuals and promising groups to start businesses. A small investment of money enables a home industry to support a family. Sam Daley-Harris of Microcredit Summit says 82% of these loans go to women.
To learn more, check out http://kabiza.com/African-Directory.htm and look under Africa’s Women. Also, you may want to research:

African Gender Institute at the University of Cape Town at www.uct.ac.za/org/agi/

“Africa Recovery/UN/Briefing Paper # 11 on Women,” available at www.un.org/ecosocdev/geninfo

African Women's Development Fund at www.awdf.org/

Women in Development Net:Africa at www.focusintl.com/widnet.htm

Women in Development Southern Africa Awareness at www.sarde.net/widsaa/

United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization at www.unesco.org/women/

United Nations Industrial Development Organization at www.unido.org/doc/4810

Women in Law and Development in Africa at http://site.mweb.co.zw/org/agi/

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ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
Debt Relief
Eighteen poor countries in Africa are burdened with billions of dollars of debt. So great is this burden that poor nations have been borrowing just to pay the interest on their loans. Clearly, this fiscal policy leaves future generations mired in unbearable debt with no hope to rise above the growing obligations.

Recognizing the crisis, the 184 – nation International Monetary Fund and the World Bank have endorsed debt cancellation. Unburdened by debt, poor nations would be able to increase their spending on education and promote economic development. World Bank President Paul Wolfowitz has said, “The path to complete debt relief has now been cleared.” This step demonstrates “significant progress in fulfilling our promise to the world’s poorest people.”

The United States Treasury Secretary John Snow has affirmed America’s commitment to debt relief. The U.S.A., as part of the Group of Eight richest nations, has pledged to underwrite the debt. The International Monetary Fund Chief Rodrigo Rato has said, “Alleviation of that debt will help to achieve a substantial poverty reduction.”

Debt reduction makes good economic sense, not only for Africa’s poor countries, but also for richer trading countries. Africa possesses tremendous natural resources in oil and minerals, as well as an inexpensive labor force. As the poorest African countries develop markets, they will be able to build their economic ties to the West while improving the living standard of African laborers. Debt reduction also means small African businesses can develop with government loans. More Africans can receive essential training and education to utilize contemporary methods of agriculture and irrigation. Vocational training can produce a generation of Africans who possess the skills to raise the quality of their lives.

For information on Africa's debt, check out:

Africa Action at www.africaaction.org/campaign_new/debt.php

African Growth and Opportunity Act at www.agoa.gov

DATA at www.data.org/whyafrica/

Oxfam at www.maketradefair.com

The People's Health Movement is a coalition promoting health and equitable development, at: www.phmovement.org

United Nations Development Programme, at www.undp.org

US Network for Global Economic Justice at www.50years.org/factsheets/africa.htm

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ART
Description
Art in Africa can be divided into two periods: traditional and contemporary. The traditional masks and sculpture of Africa have been well documented as having had a profound impact upon the development of Modern European artists, such as Picasso, Modigliani, Brancusi, and many others. As New York Times art critic Holland Cotter has written, “In age, variety and beauty, art from Africa is second to none. Africa had traditions of abstract art, performance art, installation art, and conceptual art centuries before the West ever dreamed up the names” (August 19, 2005, B32).

Presentation on Traditional African Art by Professor Charles Bordogna: “The Face of the Pwo: A Dominant Matrilineal Image in Central Africa”

Likewise, in recent decades a vibrant contemporary African art celebrating many radical forms of expression has emerged. This visual art embraces the hopes and frustrations of African artists today, reflecting hybrid forms and a vigorous individuality. It breaks the restrictions of traditional expectations showing a dynamic imagination that incorporates the old with the new. Many of these artists are just beginning to be recognized by the world.

Presentation on Contemporary African artist Georges Lilanga Di Nyama of Tanzania by Professor Charles Bordogna

To see more African art, check out the Baobab Project at: http://harvard.edu/DuBois/baobab/baobab.html.

The African Art Museum of the SMA Fathers in Tenafly also has an informative web site at: www.smafathers.org

The Guggenheim Museum at http://artnetweb.com/guggenheim/africa/

Ijele: Art eJournal maintained through the African Resource Center, inc.

The Museum of African Art in New York City has a wealth of links and resource at: www.africanart.org.

The National Museum of African Art at www.nmafa.si.edu/-7k-

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MUSIC
Description

The music of contemporary Africa is incredibly diverse, with many of the most exciting sounds coming from night clubs and even rising from the streets of the cities. One of the factors musicians face is language: many use regional languages for their songs. However, most of the best known musicians select a language that will give them more listeners, such as Swahili, Lingala, French, or English. The songs feature intricate vocal harmonies, varying rhythms, and a predominance of electric guitar.

Afribeat at www.afribeat.com

Afric Music at www.africmusic.com

African Music Encyclopedia at http://africanmusic.org/

AFROPOP WORLDWIDE to hear tunes from contemporary Africa or to read about African musicians: http://www.afropop.org

Cora Connection at www.coraconnection.com/

DANCE DRUMMER is devoted to West African drumming, at: http:// www.dancedrummer.com/trad.html

The Foundation of African Hip Hop Culture Online at www.africanhiphop.com

Presentation by Professor Andrew Krikun

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LITERATURE
Description

To summarize the literature of a continent is a few paragraphs is impossible. However, Contemporary African writers can be grouped by location. In terms of location: the Eastern Continental Literature of Kenya, Somalia, Tanzania, Ethiopia and Sudan; the Central Continental Literature of the Republic of the Congo, Gabon, Cameroon, the Central African Republic, and Uganda; the Southern Continental Literature of South Africa, Zimbabwe, Angola, Zambia, and Malawi; the West African Continental Literature of Senegal, Sierra Leone, Liberia, the Ivory Coast, Ghana, and Nigeria.

Some of the major writers are: Chinua Achebe from Nigeria (Things Fall Apart, Anthills of the Savannah), Ama Ata Aidoo of Ghana, Buchi Emecheta of Nigeria (The Joys of Motherhood), Nuruddin Farak of Somalia (Sweet and Sour Milk), Nadine Gordimer of South Africa (Nobel prize-winning author), Alex La Guma of South Africa, Alan Paton of South Africa (Cry, the Beloved Country), David Rubadiri of Malawi (No Bride Price), Wole Soyinka of Nigeria (Nobel prize-winning author, The Swamp Dwellers, A Dance of the Forest), Ngugi wa Thiong'o from Kenya (Petals of Blood), and Amos Tutola of Nigeria (The Palm Wine Drunkard). This list is by no means exclusive; many exciting new writers have emerged in the past decade. 

Many of the best works of literature by African writers are available in the African Writers Series of Heinemann Publishers at www.heinemann.com

The African Literature Association at www.africanlit.org

African Literature Studies at Columbia University at the site, "African Literature on the Internet," available at: http://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/indiv/africa/cuvl/aflit.html.

African Literature Studies at Indiana University an: www.iupjournals.org/ral/

Cambridge University Studies at www.cambridge.org/uk/

To learn more about African poets, you may want to check out: www.AfricanResource.com

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